百度 ...所属类别:时政|12-07-1017:37:59据《元史》记载，至元十六年（1279年），委派同知太史院士...所属类别:军事|

????????? (?????????: computer) ????????? ??????????????? ???????? ????????? ?????????? ???????????????????????? ???????????????? ????????????????? ?????????????? ???????????????? ????????????????????? ?????? ?????????????????????????? ????????????????????????? ?????????? ??????????? ??????????????????? ?????????????????? ?????????????? ???????????????? ???????????? ????????? ????????????????? ????????????? ??????????????? ?????????? ?????????????????????? ????????????????????????? ?????????????? ??????????????? ???????????????????????? ????????????????? ????????????????? ????????? ??????????????????? ????????????? ????????????????? ??????????? ??????????????????? ???????????????? ???????????? ????????? ????????????????? ???????????? ?????????? ?????????? ??????????????? ???????????????? ?????? ????????? ???????????? ???????????????????? ?????????? ?????????????? ????????????? ???????????? ?????????????????? ????????????????????? ???????????? ?????????? ??????????????????

?????????? ???????????? ???????????????? ?? ???? ??????????? ???????????????????? ????????????????????????? ????????????????? ??????????? ?????????????????????? ????????? (personal computer-PC) ???????????????????? ??????????????????? ?????????????? ???????????? ?????????????????? ????????? ?????????????????? ?????????????? ?? ????????????????? ???? ???????????????????????????????? ????????? ???????? ??????????????? ?????????? ?????? ???????????????? ????????? ???????????????????????? ?????????? ???????????????????? ??????????????????????? ????????????????? ???????????? ?????????????????? ???????????????????????? ?????????????? ???????????????? ?????????? ??????????? ????????????? ?????????????????? ???????????????????????????????? ??????????????????????? ?????????????????? ?????????????????? ?????? ??????? (Robot) ???? ??????????????????? ???????????????? ?????????????????????????? ?????????

???????

Jacquard? ??????? ?????????????????????? ??????????????????????? ??????????

????????? ???????????? ????????? ??????????????? ???????????? ????????????? ???????????? ???????????????????? ?????????????????????? ????????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????????????? ??????????? ???????????????????? ?????????(???- ?????????????????????????????????????????)? ???????????????? ?????????????????????? ???????????? ?????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????? ????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????? ???????????? ????????????????????????????????????? ^[?]^[?] ???????????????? ?????????? ??????????????????? ???????????????????????????????????????(?????- , , )??????? ??????????????? ???????????????

?????????????????????? ?????? ?????????????(Abacus)??????? ??????????????? ???????? ???????????????????????????????? ??????????? ??????????????????????????? ???? ????????? ???????????(Babylonia)??????????? ????????????????????????????????? ??????????????????????? ???? ???????????^[?]? ????????????????????????? ???? ????????????? ??????????????^[?] ???????????????????????????? ???????

?????????????????? ????? ??????? ????? ??????????? ??????? Wilhelm Schickard ? ?????????? ???? ??????? ????????????????????????????????????????(Calculators) ???????? ??????????????? ??????????????????????? ???? ??????Device ??? (Calculators) ?????????? ????????? ?????????????????? ????????????? Programme ???????????????????????????????? ???? ?????? ???? Joseph Marie Jacquard ??? Textile ????????????? ?????????? Punched Paper Cards Series ??? ???????????? ??? ????????????? ????????????? ?????????????????? Jacquard ? ???????????? ??????? ?????????????????????????? ???????????? ?????????????? ???? ?????? ???? Charles Babbage ??? Programmable Mechanical Computer ??? ???? Design ????????????? Analytical Engine ???????????????? ???? ?????? ?????????? US Census ? Punched Card ????? ?????????? Scale Automated Data Processing ????????????????????? Tabulating Machines ??? Herman Hollerith ? Designed ????????????? Computing Tabulating Recording Corporation ( ?????? IBM ????????? ) ? ??????????????? ?? ???? ??????????????? IBM??????? ???????????????????????????????? ??????? ????????????????????????????????? ????????????????????????? ?????????????????? Punched Card, Boolean Algebra], The Vacuum Tube (Thermionic Value) ??? Teleprinter ??? ???????????????????????????????? ?? ???? ?????????????? ???????????? ????????????????????????????? Analog Computer ???????? ??????????????????????? ???????????? ???? Analog Computer ??????? Programmable ?????????????? ??????? Digital ????? ??????? ????????????????????? ????????????????????

?????????:Early computer characteristics

????????

?????????????????????????? ???????? ?????????????? ?????????????????? ???????? ?????????????? ???????????????????? ?????????? ???????????????? ???????????????? ???????? ?????????????????????? (????????)???????????????? ?????????? ????????????????? ???? ???????? ???????????????????? ????????? (von Neumann) ?????????????????? ????????? ????????????????? ??????????? ????????? ???????????????????? ????????? ????????????????? ???????????????????????

?????????????????????????? ????????? ????????????????? ???????????????? ???????? ?????????????????????? ????????????? ????????????? ???????????????? browser? ??????????? ???????????? ???????????????? ??????????????????? ???????????? ???????????????? ???????????????????????? ???????????????????????????? ????????????????? ????????????? ?????????????????????????? ??????????????? ????????????? ???????? ????????????????? ????????????????? ????????? ???????? ??????????????? ?????????? ?????????????????? ????????????????? ?????????? ??????????? ?????????????? ????????? ???????????????? ?????? ??????????????? ????????? ????????

???????? ???????????

??????????????? ????????????????????????????? ??????????????? ???? ??????????????? ????????????????? ???????????????? ????????? ??????????? ??????????? ?????????????? ??????????????????????? ???????????????? ???????? ??????????????????????? ?????????? ?????????? ????????? ????????????? ??????????? ?????????? ????????????? ?????????????? ????????????? ???????? ???????????????????????? ????? ???????? ????????????????????? ????????? ??????????????????? ????????????????? ???????????????? ???????????? ????????????????? ??????????? ???????????????????? ???????????????????????? ???????? ????????????????????????? ???????????????? ???????????????????? ??????????????????? ?????????????????? ????????????? ???????????????? ????????????????? Many computers directly support subroutines by providing a type of jump that "remembers" the location it jumped from and another instruction to return to the instruction following that jump instruction.

??????????????? ??????????????? ????????????????????????? ???????????????? ??????????? ?????? ??????????????? ?????????????? ??????? ???????????????? ?????????? ??????????????????? ?????????????? ????????? ????????????????? ??????????????? ?????????????????? ???????????????????? ???????????????? ???????????? ???????????????????? ?????????? ???????????????????? ????????????????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????????? ???????????????? ??????? ???????????????????? ?????????? (flow of control) ?????????? ??????? ?????????????????????? ???????????????????? ?????????? ?????????????????????????? ???????????????? ?????????? ????????????????? ??????????? ?????????????????????? ???????????????????????????

???????????? ?????????? ???????????????????????? ????? ??????????? ???????????????? ????????????????????????? ??????????? ?????? ?????? ??????????? ????????????????? ???????? ??? ????????????????? ??????????????? ????????????????? ???????????? ???????????? ??????????????????????????? ?????????? ????????? ????????????????????????? ????????????? ????????????????????????? ???????? ????????????????? ???????????????? ??????????????????? ????????????? ???????????????? ??????????? ?????????????????

      mov #0, sum      ; sum ??? ??????? ??????????
      mov #1, num      ; num ??? ??????? ??????????
loop: add num, sum     ; num ???  sum ?? ?????????????
      add #1, num      ; num ??? ????????????
      cmp num, #1000   ; num ????? ????? ??? ??????????????
      ble loop         ; num <= 1000, 'loop' ???? ????????????????
      halt             ; ??????????? ??????

?????? ??????????? ???????????? ?????????? ???????? ??????????????? ?????????? ???????? ????????? ????? ??????????? ????????????????? ????????????????? ??????????????????? ??????????????????????????? ????????????????? ??????????? ?????????????? ??????????????? ?????????????????????????^[?]

????????????????

?????????? ???? ???? ??????????? ????? ??????? ????? ???????? ???????????? (arithmetic and logic unit)? ?????????? ???????????? (control unit)? ????????(Memory Device) ????? ?????? ????? ?????? (I/O) ???????? ???????? ???? ???????????? ??????? ????????????? ???????????????? ????? ???? ????? ????????????????

?????????? ???

?????????? ??? (control unit, often called a control system or Central Processing Unit CPU) ????????? ?????? ??? ? ???????????? ??????????? ????????????? ??????? ???????? ? ???????????????????? ??????????????? ?????? ???? ????????? ???????? ?????????? ?????? ????????????? ???????? ????????????????? ??????????? ????????????????? ????????? ?????? ????? ??????????????

????????????? ? ???? ??? ???????? ???????? ????? ????????????? ??? ????????? ????????? ??? ????????????? ???? ??????????? ????????? ????????????

?????????? ???? ???????????? ????? ?????????????? ???????????????????? ????????? ??????????????????????

???????? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ?????? ????????????? (instruction) ??????? ??????
????????????????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ????????????? (command) ???? ????????? ????????????? ??????????? (signal) ???? ????? ????????????
????????????? ?????????? ???????? ?????????? ?????????????
????????????? ??????? ????????(Memory Device) ??????????? ???????????????? ?????? ??????????????? ??????????????? ?????????????? ????????????? ???? ???????? ???????????????????
????????????? ??? ????????? ????????? ????????????? ????????????????? ??????????? ?????????? ?????????????
??????????? ??????? ????????(Memory Device)????????? ?????????????????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ??????????? ???????? ???????
?? ????? (?) ???? ???????????

???????????? ????? ???????????

????? ??????? ????? ???????? ???????????? (Arithmetic and logic unit, ALU) ???? ????????? ??? ????? ??????? ????? ???????? ???????????? ??????? ?????? ????????????????

????? ??????? ???????????????? ALU ??? ?????????????????? ???????? ?????? ????????? ????? ?????????????? ??????????? ????? square root ???? ????????????? ????????? ???????????? ??????? ???????????????????? ?????????????????? ????????? ??????? ???????????????????? ??? ????? (floating point) ?? ???????? (real number) ??????? ?????????????????? ????????? ??????? ???? ????????? ???????? ????????????? ???????????? ????????? ?????????????? ????????????????????? ??????????????????? ??????????? ??????? ???? ?????? ????????????????????? ????????????????? ????? ???????? ? ?????????? ?????????????? ????????????????????? ?????????????????

??????????? ???????????? ??????????????? ??????? ???????????????????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ????????????????? ???????? ??????????????????? AND? OR? XOR ????? NOT ???????????? ??????????? ???????? ??????? ?????????????? ????? ???????? ???????????????? ????? ????????????

???? ???????????????? ????????? ????????????? ???????????????? ?????????? ???????????????????? ?????????????????? ????????????? SIMD ????? MIMD ??????????? ??????? ???? ????????????????? ???????????????????? ????????? ????? ????? ??????? ????????? ????????????????????? ????????????????????

????????(Memory Device)

????????? ???????? ???????? ????????? ????????? ????????? ??????????????? ???????? ????????? ????? ????????????? ??????????????? ?????? (address) ????? ??????? ?????????????? ??????????????? ???????????? ??????????? ???? ???? ????? ??? ?????????????????? ??????????? ???? ?????????? ??????????? ???? ??????? ???????????? ??????????? ???? ???? ????????????????? ?????????????????? ???????????? ??????????????? ?????????????? ?????????????????? ??????????????????? ????????? ????????????? ??????? ????? ????? ???????? ??????????????? ?????? ???????? ???????????? ??????? ????????????????? ?????????????????? ????????????? ???????? ???????? ??? ????????????????? ??????? ?????????????

???????? ????????? ?????????????????????????????????? ???????? ??? (bit) ??????? ????? (byte) ???? ???????? ?????????????????? ????? ???????? ??? ??? ??????? ????????? -??? ?? +??? ??????? ??? ????? ??????????????? ??????????? ????????? ???????????? ????? ????? ????? ?????????????? ??????????????? ? ??? ? ?? ????????? ? ?? ?????????????? ?????? ???????????? ????????? Two's complement ??????? ??? ????????????????????? ????????? ???????? ??????? ??????????????? ????? ????????????????? ???????????????????? ???????? ???????????????? ??????? ??????????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ?????????

?????????? ????????????????? ???? ?????????? ??????? ??????????? ?????????????? ????????? ??????? ????????? ??????????????? ?????? ?????????????? ??????? ????????? ????????????? ??????? ?????? ??? ????????? ????????? ?????????? ?????? ??????????? ???? ??????? ???? ??????? ????????????? ????????? ????????

????????? ??????????? ???? ???????????????? random access memory ???? RAM ????? read-only memory ???? ROM ???? ?????????? RAM ??? ?????? ???????? ?????????? ???????????????????????? ROM ??? ???????????????????? ?????? ???????? ?????????????? ???????? ???????????? ??????????????? RAM ??? ???????????????????? ????????????????????? ???????????? ROM ??? ???????????????????? ????????????????? ????????????? ROM ??? BIOS ???? ???? ???????? ?? ????????????? ??? hard disk drive ?? RAM ???????? ?????? ???????????????????? ????????

??????????? ?????????? (Input/ Output)

I/O ???? ?????? ????? ?????????? ??? ????? ???????????? ????????? ???? ????? ????????? ?????????? ??????? ???????????? ???????? ?????????? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ??? peripheral ?? ???????? ???????????? ????????? ????????? ?????? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ????? ????? ?????????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ???? ?????????????? ??????

????? ???????????????

Hardware

Computer ?????????????????????????? ??????????????????? Computer Hardware ????????????

??????????

NissanclaperComputer Hardware ???????????? ????????????????????? ????????????????? ????????????????? (Instructions) ?????????? (Commands) ??? ????????? ?????????? ?????????????? ????????????????? ??????????? ??????(Hardware) ????????? ????????????? ???????????? ??????????????? ?????????(Software) ??????????????

**Computer software**
Operating System	Unix/BSD	UNIX System V, AIX, HP-UX, Solaris (SunOS), IRIX, List of BSD operating systems
	GNU/Linux	List of Linux distributions, Comparison of Linux distributions
	Microsoft Windows	Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows NT, Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Vista,Windows 7, Windows CE, Windows 8, Windows 10
	DOS	86-DOS (QDOS), PC-DOS, MS-DOS, FreeDOS
	Mac OS	Mac OS classic, Mac OS X
	Embedded and real-time	List of embedded operating systems
	Experimental	Amoeba, Oberon/Bluebottle, Plan 9 from Bell Labs
Library	Multimedia	DirectX, OpenGL, OpenAL
Library	Programming library	C standard library, Standard template library
Data	Protocol	TCP/IP, Kermit, FTP, HTTP, SMTP
Data	File format	HTML, XML, JPEG, MPEG, PNG
User interface	Graphical user interface (WIMP)	Microsoft Windows, GNOME, KDE, QNX Photon, CDE, GEM
User interface	Text user interface	Command line interface, shells
Application	Office suite	Word processing, Desktop publishing, Presentation program, Database management system, Scheduling & Time management, Spreadsheet, Accounting software
	Internet Access	Browser, E-mail client, Web server, Mail transfer agent, Instant messaging
	Design and manufacturing	Computer-aided design, Computer-aided manufacturing, Plant management, Robotic manufacturing, Supply chain management
	Graphics	Raster graphics editor, Vector graphics editor, 3D modeler, Animation editor, 3D computer graphics, Video editing, Image processing
	Audio	Digital audio editor, Audio playback, Mixing, Audio synthesis, Computer music
	Software Engineering	Compiler, Assembler, Interpreter, Debugger, Text Editor, Integrated development environment, Performance analysis, Revision control, Software configuration management
	Educational	Edutainment, Educational game, Serious game, Flight simulator
	Games	Strategy, Arcade, Puzzle, Simulation, First-person shooter, Platform, Massively multiplayer, Interactive fiction
	Misc	Artificial intelligence, Antivirus software, Malware scanner, Installer/Package management systems, File manager

Firmware

Firmware ??? ???????? Hardware ??????? ????????????????????? Software ???????????????????????????? ?????? ??????????????? ????????????????? (Instructions) ???????? Firmware ??? Hardware ????? Software ?????? Interface ?????????????

????????????? ????????????

?????????????? ???????????????? ??????? ?????? ?????(?)??????? ????????????? ??????????? ??????????????????? ??????????? -

?????(?)-PSU - Power Supply Unit (PSU) ?? AC (Alternating Current) Voltage ??????????????? DC (Direct Current) Voltage (?)???????? ???????????

?????(?) Motherboard - Motherboard ??? PSU ?? ?????????? Voltage ??? + (or) - 5% Error ???/???? ?????????? 4.7 V ????? 5.25 V ????????????? PSU ???? PG (Power Good Signal) ???????????? PG ???????? ?????????? ??????????????

?????(?)Crystal - ??????????????????????? Motherboard ??? Crystal (????????????????)????????? ??????????????? ??????????????????????? Analog ??????? 14.31 MHz ???????????

?????(?)-Clock Generator – Crystal ?? ??????????? Analog ?????????? Clock Generator IC ?? Digital Clock ???????????????????

?????(?)-Digital Clock- Digital Clock ??? ?????????? Frequency ???????? ?????? Motherboard ??????? IC, Memory, Processor, ROM-BIOS, Chip set ????????????????? ??????????? ???????????

?????(?)-ROM-BIOS (?) POST (?)Boot Strapping (?) Low Level Interfaces (?) POST – Power On Self Test - ?????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????? ????????????? Standard Devices ??????? ???????????????? (Memory, Monitor, Keyboard, Hard Disk, CPU, Chip Set,…) (?) Boot Strapping - ???????????? ????????????????? OS (Operating System)??? Memory ???????? ?????????????? ????????????? (???????????????? Boot ??????? Drive A (System Disk)?? Boot Record ? ??? Track, ??? Sector ?????????? Master Boot Record ?? Boot Strap Program Code ??? Memory ?????????????????? ????????????????? Instruction ??????? CPU ? ???????????????????) (?) Low Level Interfaces- BIOS ??? Hardware Devices ??????????????? ???????????????????????????? OS ???????? ?????????????????? (Memory ?? Hard Disk? Hard Disk ?? Memory ???? Data ???? ?????????? ?????????????????????????? ?????????????????)

???????????????????

↑ According to Schmandt-Besserat 1981, these clay containers contained tokens, the total of which were the count of objects being transferred. The containers thus served as something of a bill of lading or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers, first, clay impressions of the tokens were placed on the outside of the containers, for the count; the shapes of the impressions were abstracted into stylized marks; finally, the abstract marks were systematically used as numerals; these numerals were finally formalized as numbers. Eventually (Schmandt-Besserat estimates it took 4000 years 30 January 2012 ? ????????????????????????? ???????????????? . ) the marks on the outside of the containers were all that were needed to convey the count, and the clay containers evolved into clay tablets with marks for the count.
↑ Robson? Eleanor (2008)? Mathematics in Ancient Iraq? ISBN 978-0-691-09182-2. p. 5: calculi were in use in Iraq for primitive accounting systems as early as 3200–3000 BCE, with commodity-specific counting representation systems. Balanced accounting was in use by 3000–2350 BCE, and a sexagesimal number system was in use 2350–2000 BCE.
↑ Ifrah? Georges (2001)? The Universal History of Computing: From the Abacus to the Quantum Computer? New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.? p. 15? ISBN 978-0-471-39671-0?
↑ Ifrah? Georges (2001)? The Universal History of Computing: From the Abacus to the Quantum Computer? New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.? p. 17? ISBN 978-0-471-39671-0?
↑ This program was written similarly to those for the PDP-11 minicomputer and shows some typical things a computer can do. All the text after the semicolons are comments for the benefit of human readers. These have no significance to the computer and are ignored. Digital Equipment Corporation 1972

[1] According to Schmandt-Besserat 1981, these clay containers contained tokens, the total of which were the count of objects being transferred. The containers thus served as something of a bill of lading or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers, first, clay impressions of the tokens were placed on the outside of the containers, for the count; the shapes of the impressions were abstracted into stylized marks; finally, the abstract marks were systematically used as numerals; these numerals were finally formalized as numbers. Eventually (Schmandt-Besserat estimates it took 4000 years 30 January 2012 ? ????????????????????????? ???????????????? . ) the marks on the outside of the containers were all that were needed to convey the count, and the clay containers evolved into clay tablets with marks for the count.

[2] Robson? Eleanor (2008)? Mathematics in Ancient Iraq? ISBN 978-0-691-09182-2. p. 5: calculi were in use in Iraq for primitive accounting systems as early as 3200–3000 BCE, with commodity-specific counting representation systems. Balanced accounting was in use by 3000–2350 BCE, and a sexagesimal number system was in use 2350–2000 BCE.

[3] Ifrah? Georges (2001)? The Universal History of Computing: From the Abacus to the Quantum Computer? New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.? p. 15? ISBN 978-0-471-39671-0?

[4] Ifrah? Georges (2001)? The Universal History of Computing: From the Abacus to the Quantum Computer? New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.? p. 17? ISBN 978-0-471-39671-0?

[5] This program was written similarly to those for the PDP-11 minicomputer and shows some typical things a computer can do. All the text after the semicolons are comments for the benefit of human readers. These have no significance to the computer and are ignored. Digital Equipment Corporation 1972

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